An investigation on Schema theory.

The human mind is a complex and fascinating entity of human autonomy. The aspect of the mind that various scientists are still investigating is the Schema theory. A schema has been similarly defined by various types of psychologists claiming that schema is a mental representation that we use to organize our knowledge. However, it is important to note that "mental representation" is a broad term and is a term that can be used to explain practically everything in the mind. The stable, deeply rooted mental representations are referred to as a schema, as it is the only form of mental representation that can influence our knowledge beliefs, and expectations. The model that this internal assessment aims to probe into is the schema theory, a theory that has been investigated by various psychologists to test whether it is a stable, deeply rooted mental representation and not just a general mental representation. A schema is an organized collection of information about a subject or situation. It is used to direct present understanding or actions and is based on previous experience (Popov, 2018).

Schemas can influence the encoding of information. Encoding is a process of memory transferring where information is transferred from sensory organs to internal mental structures for example long-term memory (LTM). Schemas hold various characteristics which include: schemas are dynamic. Dynamic in the sense that they develop and change based on new information and new experiences. The schema theory is linked to the investigation because,the comprehension of students and their retaining of information in various subjects is something of releveance to us. Schemas are represented in three different ways; social schema which is about ourselves. Social schemas, schemas about groups of people, and lastly script schemas, which represent sequences of events.

The study explored by Bransford and Johnson (1972) specifically the role in context in memory and comprehension. The researchers presented participants with passages that were complicated to understand without context. This study revealed that when context is provided before reading the passage allowed for the memory and comprehsion to increase (Bransford & Johnson, 1972). This highlights the importance of providing content to remember and understand new information. This study shows how schemas could significantly impact how information is prosseed and remembered.

Our study aimed to investigate the effect of context on comprehension and the number of idea units remembered by high school students in terms of the presence of context before and no context. The aim is highly relevant to us since it helps us understand why schemas play a large role in comprehending a given text. It sheds light on the comprehension of students and their retaining of information in various subjects. For example, the high school education system has a bulk of information including complex concepts and a bulk of information that students are required to comprehend and retain. Often, students struggle with comprehension due to a lack of contextual understanding.

IV: The presence or absence of context in the form of an image.

DV: The DV was operationalized by the Ideas recalled by participants out of 15 questions.

Research hypothesis: Students who are presented with context in the form of an image will recall more ideas out of 15 questions given from the audio than those who are not.

Null hypothesis: There will be no difference in the ideas recalled by participants out of the 15 questions asked in the two conditions.

The experiment used an independent measures design whereby the participants took part in different experimental conditions, one that provided context and one without. This was done to eliminate order effects on the participants and to prevent individuals from working out the aim of the study. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the conditions where they stood in line and divided into "1" and "2" Each respective number was assigned to either context or no context group. To avoid participant bias.

A sample of 24 students that ranged from year 9 up to year 12. The age range of the participants was from 16-18 and hence they were eligible to sign their consent forms. All participants used English as their primary language as the study was conducted in English. The participants did not know psychology hence they were less likely to figure out the aim our study investigated and made it less likely for the results to be disorted.

The sample was obtained using convenience sampling whereby readily available participants were used and requested to participate in the experiment. In our context, we used students ranging from year 9 up to year 12 as they were easily available for participation in a school setting. We asked them whether they wanted to take part in our psychology investigation and they accepted.

We ensured that the participants we chose did not know psychology to ensure that the aim was not easily worked out to avoid skewed results. A quiet room was used to ensure that there was no interference with the hearing of the audio. The timing of the experiment posed a disadvantage due to the presence of fatigue, which acted as a confounding factor.

1. An informed consent form (Appendix A) was used to ensure participants understood and agreed to research procedures.

2. Full context image (Appendix B) we used this to retain consistency with the original study and to provide the context before the text was played it provided a comprehensive visual context for understanding comprehension and recall.

3. Questionnaire (Appendix C) which included instructions and in-task questions.

4. The debriefing form (Appendix D) was used to disclose information to

1. Participants were given consent forms to sign.

2. The participants were then put in a line and given numbers "1" and "2" and then allocated to each condition based on the number given. "1" represented context and "2" represents the no context group.

3. We began with the no-context group first and in this condition we played the audio that lasted \(0:52\) seconds and gave them 7 minutes to answer the questionnaire.

4. The context group was projected for the context image for 10 seconds there after we played the same audio and gave them 7 minutes to answer a questionnaire.

5. After each condition, the participants were thanked and verbally debriefed by one of the experimenters.

Since we produced ratio data we used mean and standard deviation for our descriptive statistics. See Raw Data Table (Appendix E).

Provided in the table above the mean and standard deviation values of both conditions can be seen. In the context group remembered an average of 8.33 idea units. On the other hand, the no-context group remembered an average of 6.58 idea units. The table clearly illustrates that the mean of the context group is higher than the mean of the no-context group. This indicates that participants provided with the contextual image were able to recall more idea units. The standard deviation in the context group (1.03) indicates an average amount of variability in terms of the context and its effect on encoding. The standard deviation of the no-context group suggests that having no context affected comprehension.

Since we used an independent measure design we calculated the Mann-Whitney test. Calculations can be seen in (Appendix F). It can be seen that the \(U\)-value at \(p<.05\), one-tailed is 42. Therefore, the result is significant \(p<.05\). It can also be seen that the \(z\)-score is 3.08882. The \(p\)-value is .001. Since the results are significant, we reject the null hypothesis and accept our research hypothesis. This suggests that the presence of context does make a difference in comprehension and memory.

The inferential statistics from our Mann-Whitney test suggested that our results were significant hence we rejected the null hypothesis that stated that there would be no difference in the ideas recalled by participants out of the 15 questions asked in the two conditions. This proposed that despite the context and no context group memory of the text should have stayed the same. Therefore, these results did support the schema theory as well as the original experiment, which resulted in the context affecting the memory and encoding which enhanced comprehension.

Throughout the procedure, we used ethical documentation to produce ethical results. We provided the participants with relevant documents such as the informed consent form and debriefing notes. In addition, we used the same audio in the same conditions to ensure that the participant's comprehension of the text was not affected. Using the same audio provided the experiment with external validity as the procedure was the same in both conditions except for the context given. A strength of our procedure is that many extraneous variables were controlled. The fact that the classroom was used, the questionnaire questions were the same and the audio was kept the same ensured that each participant was treated equally in the experiment. However, there was limited content exposure as the context group only received 10 seconds of exposure to the context image before listening to the audio. The time might not have been sufficient for participants to process the context sufficiently thus potentially affecting the results. A possible modification for this would be to increase the duration of exposure of the context image to ensure participants have adequate time to process it before listening to the audio.

The sample used had a gender ratio of 13:11. The balanced distribution of gender allowed us to minimize the risk of gender bias in the performance of the study. The age range was between 16 and 18 which helped increase the generalizability of the study as the sample is representative of the teenage population more specifically high school students. All participants used English as their first language in education, minimizing issues with audio comprehension throughout the experiment. However, the sample had participants who were from the same school as well as some in the same class, which serves as a disadvantage in the study. Since our experiment lacks population validity and is not representative. A suitable modification to our study would be to use participants from different schools and different classes to increase the external validity and to produce results high in the representation of the general age range used.

The use of independent measures design is an experimental design that uses different participants for each independent variable condition. Because the audio was used in both conditions it allowed us to use the same materials. Independent measures design reduced order effects as the participants only took part in one condition. As well, participants could not work out the aim of the study as they only took part in one condition of the study. The use of an independent measures design considerably strengthens the study's external validity. On the other hand, using independent measures design could have brought forth participant variables in the two conditions, which in turn would have affected the overall results produced by the participants. A suitable modification to our study would be to use matched pairs which counters the challenge of participant variables as in the matched pairs research design participants are matched in terms of key variables.

Bransford, J. D., & Johnson, M. K. (1972). Contextual prerequisites for understanding: Some investigations of comprehension and recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 717-726.

Kintsch, W. (1972). Remembering, understanding, and learning. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Popov, A. (2018). IB Psychology Study Guide: Oxford IB Diploma Programme.

TITLE OF STUDY

Schema Theory

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR

Names:

PURPOSE OF STUDY

You are being asked to take part in a research study. Before you decide to participate in this study, you must understand why the research is being done and what it will involve. Please read the following information carefully. Please ask the researcher if there is anything that is not clear or if you need more information.

The purpose of this study is to test the hypothesis that providing context before reading a passage can improve comprehension and recall.

STUDY PROCEDURES

1. Participant recruitment: Participants will be recruited through a variety of methods, including online postings, flyers, and word-of-mouth.

2. Informed consent: All participants will be given a detailed explanation of the study and will be asked to sign an informed consent form before participating.

3. Pre-test: Participants will be given a pre-test to assess their reading comprehension and recall skills.

4. Experimental manipulation: Participants will be randomly assigned to one of two conditions: the context condition or the no-context condition. In the context condition, participants will be given a brief description of the context before reading the passage. In the no-context condition, participants will not be given any context before reading the passage.

5. Post-test: Participants will be given a post-test to assess their reading comprehension and recall skills.

6. Debriefing: All participants will be debriefed about the study and will be allowed to ask questions.

Experimental procedures: The only experimental procedure in this study is the manipulation of context. Participants in the context condition will be given a brief description of the context before reading the passage. Participants in the no-context condition will not be given any context before reading the passage.

Technical and medical terminology: The following technical and medical terms will be used in the study:

• Reading comprehension: The ability to understand the meaning of a written passage.
• Recall: The ability to remember information that has been learned.
• Context: The setting or environment in which something happens.
• Schemata: Mental frameworks that represent our knowledge about the world.

These terms will be explained in non-technical language in the informed consent form and the debriefing. Expected reading level of participants: The expected reading level of participants is 10th grade. All materials will be written at a level that is appropriate for this reading level.

There will be videotaping for your answers in the questionnaire as well as the procedure. The amount of time required by the investigators from you will vary but we will let you know how many times we will need you and at what times.

RISKS

There are no risks in your participation in taking part in this research study. However, note that you may decline to answer any or all questions and you may terminate your involvement at any time if you choose.

BENEFITS

There will be no direct benefit to you for your participation in this study. However, we hope that the information obtained from this study may have a positive impact on the lives of others, such as students, teachers, and people with reading comprehension difficulties.

CONFIDENTIALITY

For this research study, your comments will not be anonymous. Every effort will be made by the researcher to preserve your confidentiality including the following:

The measures taken to ensure confidentiality, such as those listed below:

• Assigning code names/numbers for participants that will be used on all research notes and documents
• Keeping notes, interview transcriptions, and any other identifying participant information in the personal possession of the researcher.

Participant data will be kept confidential except in cases where the researcher is legally obligated to report specific incidents. These incidents include, but may not be limited to, incidents of abuse and suicide risk.

CONTACT INFORMATION

If you have questions at any time about this study, you may contact the researcher whose contact information is provided on the first page. If you have questions regarding your rights as a research participant.

VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION

Your participation in this study is voluntary. It is up to you to decide whether or not to take part in this study. If you decide to take part in this study, you will be asked to sign a consent form. After you sign the consent form, you are still free to withdraw at any time and without giving a reason. Withdrawing from this study will not affect the relationship you have, if any, with the researcher. If you withdraw from the study before data collection is completed, your data will be returned to you or destroyed.

CONSENT

I have read and I understand the provided information and have had the opportunity to ask questions. I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time, without giving a reason and without cost. I understand that I will be given a copy of this consent form. I voluntarily agree to take part in this study.

Participant's signature \(\qquad\) Date \(\qquad\)

Investigator's signature \(\qquad\) Date \(\qquad\)

Investigator's signature \(\qquad\) Date \(\qquad\)

SCHEMA THEORY REPLICATION STUDY

Section 1: Demographic Information

Gender:
\(\square\) Male
\(\square\) Female
\(\square\) Other

Age:

Grade/Year Level:

Section 2: Instructions

You will hear a tape recording of a passage and then you will then be required to recall it as accurately as you can, writing down as many ideas as you can remember from the passage.For any clarification please ask us if the instructions are unclear. Tick the answer you think is correct in relation to the text or circle the answer option whichever one you prefer.

1. What would happen if the balloons popped during the operation?
a) The sound would carry to the correct floor.
b) The sound would be too far away to carry.
c) The sound can be affected by a closed window
d) The sound would be made louder

2. What would affect the sound from being audible?
a) Insulated buildings.
b) Open windows.
c) A steady flow of electricity.
d) A snap in the wire.

3. What are the possible consquences if the wire broke in the middle?
a) The sound would be amplified.
b) The sound would carry better.
c) The operation would continue easily
d) Issues would come up becayse of the electricity flow.

4. What is the constraint of a human voice in the operation?
a) The human voice would be amplified enough to carry.
b) The human voice would be affected by a closed window.
c) The human voice would be made louder by the instrument.
d) The human voice would be able to reach the correct floor.

5. What issue will arise while using the instrument?
a) The string could break.
b) The sound would be amplified.
c) The operation would be smoother.
d)The music would go along with the message.

6. What is the suitable situation to reduce the arising problems?
a) More distance.
b) Face-to-face contact.
c) Insulated buildings.
d) Amplified sound.

7. What would occur if the distance between the sender and receiver was made smaller?
a) Many potential issues can arise.
b) The operation would be conducted smoothly.
c) The instrument would break.
d) The message would go hand in hand with music.

8. What issue would arise with a closed window during the operation?
a) The sound would carry better.
b) The sound would be muffled.
c) The instrument would break.
d) The operation would carry on easily.

9. What is the main point requeired for the operatoin to run without issues?
a) Balloons popping.
b) Face-to-face contact.
c) Insulated buildings.
d) Stable movement of electricity.

10. What would happen if the message did not have accompaniment?
a) The operation would continue easily.
b) The sound would carry better.
c) The message would not have the accompaniment.
d) The message would be understood clearer.

11. What is the ideal situation that reduces the arising problems?
a) A longer wire.
b) A closed window.
c) Face-to-face contact.
d) More distance

12. How far can the human voice carry in this operation?
a) Far enough to reach the correct floor.
b) Far enough to reach the sender.
c) Not far enough to reach the correct floor.
d) Not far enough to reach the receiver.

13. What would happen if a wire snapped in the middle?
a) The sound would be carried better during the operation.
b) The operation would continue smoothly.
c) Problems would arise and this is due to the interrupted electricity flow.
d) The message would be easier and clearer.

14. What is the major concern with using balloons in this operation?
a) The sound would be amplified.
b) The sound would carry better.
c) The balloons might pop.
d) The balloons might snap the wire.

15. What would happen if there were more issues in the operation?
a) The operation would be smoother.
b) The instrument would break.
c) The message would be clearer.
d) The operation would become difficult.

We are so glad you participated in our experiment in our recreation of the Bransford and Johnson study done in 1972. Almost 52 years ago! The aim of it was to investigate the effects of context on reading comprehension and recall. Throughout this experiment, the procedure you followed included:

1. We randomly assigned you into groups one and two which represented the context and no-context group.

2. In the specific conditions, individuals followed their set condition, context group was provided with a full context image before listening to the audio. While the no-context group listened to the audio with no context image whatsoever.

3. After each procedure, we gave you questionnaires to test our hypothesis which was: that participants who were given the context before would have a significantly larger average number of idea units recalled compared to the participants who were not given the context image.

We conducted this experiment in a way that minimized bias. This was done through the conditions. This was done deliberately to ensure that the study's results were not influenced by participant variables. The findings of the study are similar to the schema theory which states that we store information in our memories in the form of schemas. Schemas are mental representations that represent our memories and knowledge about the world through personal experience. As much as you don't notice schemas play a role in our day-to-day lives, this is in teaching and reading comprehension. Teachers can help students improve their reading comprehension by providing them with context before they read a passage.